La Licorne
PAKISTAN, LAND & WATER
In Pakistan, as almost everywhere
in the world, a lot of its natural forests have disappeared. The majority of
the present forests is to be found in the northern hilly regions, which
-besides lumber- produce medicinal plants, dry fruits and resin. Unfortunately
ruthless felling has resulted in the loss of soil, and the incessant use of
those areas for grazing and cultivation has degraded them even more. In the
tropical quarters remnants of riverain forests can be found. Mangrove forests
in the southern Indus deltaic swamps are facing extinct due to disturbance of
their fragile ecological balance. Scrub forests can be found throughout the
country where poor site conditions and low rainfall prevail. Besides being used
for grazing, their thorny bush is harvested for household purposes. Irrigated
plantations and farm forestry supply some of the demand for wood.
As for agriculture
daylight and temperature allow one crop per year in the hilly regions, while in
the lower reaches two crops are practiced. In the tropical plains the
conditions are good for year-round agriculture. All the same the rainfall permits only one rainfed crop
per year, so that the countries' rivers and groundwater resources are widely
tapped to supply the plants' water needs in the dry season. Pakistan covers 88
million hectares, of which 16 million hectares are under irrigated agriculture
and 4 million hectares are rainfed. With 150 million people it ranks as a
densely populated country. Although there is hardly room for expansion of the
agricultural land, population increase forces the people into ever daring
ventures. In the hills slopes that actually require permanent cover are cleared
for cultivation, and in the plains saline soils and waters are utilised.
The vast bulk of the land
is used as rangeland or is unutilised. Besides bringing up products as meat, grease and hides, livestock delivers draught power, and dung for
land fertilizing and household energy. Also, animal husbandry serves as a
capital asset, which is the main reason for farmers to keep as many animals as
possible, until aged. When we add to this poor live-base-material and a poor
fodder position it is not surprising that the quality of the livestock is low,
as is the productivity. This has landed the sector in the vicious circle of
poor animal stock leading to poor results, leading to animal overpopulation,
leading to land degradation, leading to a poor fodder position, leading to poor
animals. The few farmers who have broken with this tradition achieve better
results with fewer animals and less strain on the rangelands.
The rivers in Pakistan
are yielding a modest year-round base flow, but swell in springtime on account
of melting water from the mountains and in summer on behalf the monsoon rains,
which occasionally build up to floods. This erratic behaviour is the result of
the prevailing natural regime.
Above the vegetation line
in the mountains slopes are bare by nature, causing rapid run off of water,
which takes with it all sediments in its way. Where there is a soil with
vegetation in kind of crops, grass, shrub or forest, the rain and melted snow
are to a certain extend absorbed by the soil and deliver the base flow. The
progressive denudation of the hills as a result of deforestation, cultivation
on steep slopes and overgrazing is responsible for a reduced base flow,
increased flush flows and more sediment load in the water. The result is
adverse in all respects. What starts with a loss of land, causes less reliable
water supply, more frequent and heavier floods, and increasing silt loads
filling reservoirs, river courses and irrigation canals. This requires on its
turn flood protection, additional reservoir capacity and silt removal.
In the first half of the twentieth century
-when Pakistan was still part of British India- extensive irrigation works have
been developed by tapping the Indus River and its tributaries. Notably the
eastern tributaries were intensely used to irrigate the fertile plains of the
Punjab. With the separation of Pakistan from India the Punjab was divided and a
conflict arose about the amount of water India would pass on to Pakistan. This
escalated into war between the two. It was only after tedious negotiations and
with massive international support that agreement could be reached. The Punjab
on Indian side was to make ample use of the tributaries passing through its
soil and the Punjab on Pakistani side would be supplied by diversion of western
tributaries to the East.
For this purpose dams have been constructed across
several rivers to store the yield in times of abundance and deliver it when
needed for irrigation. Several valleys in the mountains just above the plains
offered suitable locations for the storage of water behind those dams. The high
position of the water makes it possible to generate electric power before it is
discharged into the huge canals, which have been cut in the upper reaches of
the plains to convey it to the East. So the water serves irrigation and power
simultaneously. That is to say: ideally spoken, because the demands for
irrigation and power do not perfectly coincide. While the demand for irrigation
is lowest in winter, the demand for power is highest, and vice versa.
Area-wise Pakistan ranks
high on the list of countries with irrigation, but is experiencing likewise
problems from it. To begin with all irrigation water conveyance canals
together, starting from the trunk canals up the watercourses are losing more
water than the amount actually reaching the fields. Together with the percolation
of the water on the field to deeper strata this has caused the groundwater
table to rise, in many places to the extent that plant root cannot develop
well. This groundwater also prevents salts from being leached down and drained
away. Instead these salts build up in the plant root zone and prevent the
intake of water by the plant. When it concerns salts of a sodic nature the soil
will also disintegrate and become muddy which is even worse. All over the Indus
basin 5 million hectares of agricultural land have been affected by salinity
or sodicity of which 2 million hectares suffer from waterlogging as well.
Efforts are made to reduce the canal losses by rehabilitation and remodelling
of irrigation canals. Superior treatment is achieved through the lining of
irrigation canals, which should be prioritised in brackish groundwater zones
and areas with a sandy soil base. In fact an integrated program to effectively
tackle the situation is missing. Regional competition, political rivalry and
high costs prevent grand solutions.
Another major issue
concerns the operation of the irrigation systems. In most cases rigged
schedules are applied, which fail to bring water to the farms when it is needed
and make it available when the water is not needed. Also, tail-enders tend to
be worse off than head-enders. So far the Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) and the Irrigation Departments are largely responsible for water
distribution. The situation can be improved by handing over responsibilities to
Water Users Associations (WUAs).
At last the use of
irrigation water at the level of the village and farms also shows considerable
deficiencies, starting from the watercourse and ending on the field. The losses
concern again seepage from the canals, but also percolation on the field to
strata beyond the plant root zone, and last but not least outright waste of
water spilling over canals or from the fields into the drains. Improvements can
be achieved by lining of watercourses and precision land levelling, and most
importantly by better system operation.
All measures together
hold a formidable task for the public and private sectors. The effort is needed
to sustain food production and agricultural exports. Moreover the water that is
saved in the process can be applied for agricultural expansion, which is
possible since the land is available. The countries' water resources have been
largely tapped by now, so no big new finds can be expected.
Case
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PROBLEM In the area under review the 'tail enders' were receiving
little water due to a deplorable state of the watercourse. While trespassing
cattle had been trampling the banks and widening the canal, siltation in
combination with vegetation caused shallowness. A winding, trampled, muddy
watercourse only able to convey a scanty stream of water resulted. This added
to the water losses and absence of command. There was no agreement among the farmers how to
divide the shortages. The outlets to the fields were just left open to see
what water would enter. FUNDING Under the On-Farm Water Management programme funding
was arranged to improve the situation. The project was to be carried out by
the villagers themselves. |
FINDINGS DURING CONSTRUCTION Bricks for
lining the watercourse were laid too close and the vertical joint-work showed
voids without cement mortar. Also the cement mix appeared to be lean. The
deficiencies are hidden by cement plaster. FINDINGS
AFTER ONE YEAR The plaster showed cracks and came off. Where the canal
is passing the village no provisions for cattle watering and domestic water
use were made, with the result that the masonry crumbled. For the same reason
unlined sections were mudding up again. |
CONCLUSIONS With the disintegration of the newly built
structures the leakage reappear, the need for maintenance rise, the water
command suffer and the water shortage and disputes start all over. Most
masonry structures require rehabilitation once again. Where
watercourse rehabilitation is a major component of the programme attendant
measures are due. The free provision of bricks and cement presented too much
of a temptation for the villagers. By saving materials on the work notably
cement could be easily traded for cash. Any link of the programme with political patronage
should be barred. Instead awareness raising of the beneficiaries, control
mechanism and sanctions for those responsible for the shortcomings are to be
introduced. |
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When my guides instructed a farmer to get his
bullock out of the way it took the farmer some time to grasp the idea. When
he started hitting the poor animal it returned an angry blink with his big
blue eye to all of us . |
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